Wheat and Wheat Quality in Australia

By DH Simmonds
Wheat and Wheat Quality in Australia
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The relationship between grain morphology and chemistry and the practical realities of milling, flour yield, dough properties and baking behaviour, are stressed and explained. The quality requirements of flours intended for bread-baking, noodle-making and for other industrial purposes are listed and discussed.

  1. Page 1
    1. Wheat production in Australia
    1. Page 1
      The history of wheat production in Australia; the wheat growing areas; wheat production today: some production statistics.
    2. Page 5
      The wheat breeder and wheat improvement; early wheat varieties; spring and winter wheats; red and white wheats.
    3. Page 8
      Marketing and handling wheat; export and domestic consumption statistics; the role of the Australian Wheat Board; the guaranteed minimum price for wheat.
    4. Page 13
      Wheat classes and grades in Australia; grading Australian wheats: milling wheats: prime hard, hard, Australian standard white, soft; non-milling wheats: general purpose, feed wheat.
    5. Page 19
      End uses for Australian wheat; export uses; domestic uses and consumption patterns.
    6. Page 21
      Quality requirements for specific end uses: milling wheats; bread, cakes, pastries, biscuits, starch and gluten, pasta and noodles.
    7. Page 28
      References and further reading.
  2. Page 31
    2. Inherent quality factors in wheat
    1. Page 31
      Inherent and seasonal quality factors; inherent quality attributes and varietal control; basic steps to sound quality control.
    2. Page 33
      Measurement of some important inherent quality factors: milling quality; grain conditioning; the Buhler laboratory mill; analyses of flour from wheat of different quality classes; grain hardness: particle size index, pearling resistance; hardness and vitreosity; colour grade; yellow pigment.
    3. Page 41
      Physical dough testing: dough mixing and the role of gluten, the farinograph and mixograph; dough extensibility, the extensograph.
    4. Page 46
      Test baking; leavened and unleavened breads; tests for biscuit-making flours; testing for noodle quality.
    5. Page 50
      Methods available for variety identification: field methods: visual characteristics; laboratory procedures: phenol test, sodium hydroxide test, electrophoresis, isoelectric focusing, high performance liquid chromatography.
    6. Page 58
      References and further reading.
  3. Page 63
    3. Seasonal wheat quality attributes and quality control
    1. Page 63
      Seasonal quality attributes and their control; sampling points for quality control.
    2. Page 64
      Australian wheat quality standards; sampling and quality testing at harvest time; tests performed on grower’s wheat: soundness and maturity; variety check; test weight; moisture limit.
    3. Page 67
      Grain defects: defects caused by weather conditions: discoloration and weather damage, dry green and/or frosted grains; defects caused by harvesting and storage conditions: unmillable material, weed and foreign seeds including durum and red wheat admixture, other objectionable material; defects caused by micro-organisms: mycotoxins; defects due to insect infestation.
    4. Page 73
      Laboratory tests for wheat and flour quality. Determination of protein: Kjeldahl, alkaline distillation, biuret procedures; infrared reflectance analysis; recalculation of protein to a constant moisture basis.
    5. Page 78
      Miscellaneous tests: thousand kernel weight, diastatic activity, ash content.
    6. Page 80
      References and further reading.
  4. Page 81
    4. Grain storage, handling and transport
    1. Page 81
      Pattern of grain receival, bulk handling authorities.
    2. Page 83
      Types of storage facilities: permanent, vertical and horizontal, temporary; storage capacities.
    3. Page 87
      Grain storage and handling equipment, grain transportation.
    4. Page 91
      Stock and quality control, hygiene and quality control.
    5. Page 94
      Grain weighing equipment, stock programming and measurement; shipping.
    6. Page 97
      References and further reading.
  5. Page 99
    5. Pest management during grain storage
    1. Page 99
      Introduction, insect pests of stored grain, insect control methods: insecticides, fumigants, aeration.
    2. Page 104
      Pest control objectives and strategies, other possible control methods, integrated pest management.
    3. Page 108
      Pesticide residues and insect resistance.
    4. Page 109
      Pest management research.
    5. Page 109
      Rodents and their control.
    6. Page 110
      Future trends in pest control.
  6. Page 113
    6. Wheat breeding and the release of new varieties
    1. Page 113
      History of wheat breeding in Australia, modern wheat breeding.
    2. Page 116
      Breeding and release of new varieties.
    3. Page 119
      Early generation quality tests.
    4. Page 120
      Variety registration, varietal control legislation and its impact.
    5. Page 124
      Wheat breeding institutions in Australia and their associated research programs.
    6. Page 130
      Private wheat breeding programs.
    7. Page 131
      References and further reading.
  7. Page 133
    7. A history of Australian research on wheat quality - 1957–1987
    1. Page 133
      Early quality studies.
    2. Page 134
      The Wheat Research Act 1957; the Wheat Industry Research Council and State Wheat Industry Research Committees; allocation of funds for research into wheat quality in Australia.
    3. Page 137
      Research groups contributing to fundamental aspects of wheat quality since 1957.
    4. Page 137
      The Australian contribution to our understanding of wheat quality: grain morphology and wheat quality, protein composition and quality, genetic control of protein synthesis, sulfur chemistry and wheat quality.
    5. Page 143
      The Australian winter cereals collection.
    6. Page 144
      References and further reading.
  8. Page 153
    8. Fundamental aspects of wheat quality: grain morphology
    1. Page 153
      Wheat and related cereal species; chromosome numbers in wheat and its relatives; suggested origin of tetraploid and hexaploid wheats.
    2. Page 156
      Genome and chromosome groupings in the embryo and endosperm of tetraploid and hexaploid wheats.
    3. Page 158
      Developmental morphology of the wheat grain: fertilization, development, maturity.
    4. Page 163
      The endosperm as a storage organ; starch synthesis; protein synthesis.
    5. Page 167
      The aleurone layer.
    6. Page 168
      Mature grain structure and proximate composition; structure and milling quality; grain hardness.
    7. Page 177
      Flour and dough ultrastructure.
    8. Page 178
      References and further reading.
  9. Page 183
    9. Fundamental aspects of wheat quality: the protein fraction
    1. Page 183
      Protein content and wheat quality.
    2. Page 185
      Protein composition and structure; amino acids and the peptide linkage.
    3. Page 187
      Interactions between amino acid side chains: the disulfide bond; disulfide interchange; hydrogen bonding, hydrophobic interactions, ionic bonding.
    4. Page 191
      Interactions and the behaviour of protein molecules with particular reference to gluten; amino acid composition of wheat proteins: albumins, globulins, gliadin and glutenin.
    5. Page 193
      Fractional extraction of wheat proteins.
    6. Page 195
      Characterisation and molecular weight ranges of wheat proteins; wheat protein fractions: high-molecular-weight gluten proteins (glutenins), intermediate-molecular-weight-gluten proteins, low-molecular-weight gluten proteins (gliadins).
    7. Page 199
      The molecular structure of gluten.
    8. Page 200
      Changes in molecular structure during dough mixing; role of non-gluten proteins in breadmaking: albumins, globulins; pentosans.
    9. Page 202
      A new approach to understanding wheat quality: pattern analysis.
    10. Page 203
      Sulfur and wheat quality.
    11. Page 204
      Genetic control of wheat protein synthesis: homology amongst cereal storage proteins.
    12. Page 208
      Conclusion.
    13. Page 209
      References and further reading.
  10. Page 215
    10. Fundamental aspects of wheat quality: starch and non-starchy polysaccharides
    1. Page 215
      Starch composition and structure: amylose/amylopectin content of wheat and other cereal starches.
    2. Page 217
      Isolation of starch granules; identification and characterisation of starch granules.
    3. Page 220
      Separation and fine structure of amylose and amylopectin.
    4. Page 222
      Synthesis of amylose and amylopectin.
    5. Page 222
      Enzymic hydrolysis of starch: the action of alpha- and beta-amylases, amyloglucosidase; starch damage caused by milling, gelatinization and enzyme action.
    6. Page 225
      The role of starch in bread, cake and biscuit manufacture: the importance of starch damage, bread staling.
    7. Page 228
      Swelling, gelatinization or pasting of starches, effect of baking on starch structure.
    8. Page 231
      Industrial separation of starch and gluten: the Martin and Batter processes: starch and gluten quality.
    9. Page 235
      Production of liquid sugar syrups by starch hydrolysis.
    10. Page 236
      Non-starch polysaccharides in cereals: cell wall arabinoxylans and mixed linkage β-glucans.
    11. Page 239
      References and further reading.
  11. Page 243
    11. Fundamental aspects of wheat quality: the lipid fraction
    1. Page 243
      Occurrence and distribution of lipids in the wheat grain: starch and non-starch lipids; free and bound lipids; polar and non-polar lipids; membrane and storage lipids.
    2. Page 245
      Composition and structure of wheat lipids: lipid composition of wheat flour.
    3. Page 246
      Effects of lipids on loaf volume and texture.
    4. Page 248
      Lipids and bread staling.
    5. Page 248
      Lipid-protein interactions: lipid binding protein, ‘ligolin’; purothionins.
    6. Page 239
      References and further reading.
  12. Page 257
    12. Wheat and flour quality: nutritional quality
    1. Page 257
      Essential amino acids and dietary requirements.
    2. Page 258
      Protein distribution within the wheat grain; amino acid composition of wheat and its milled products; comparison of wheat with other cereals.
    3. Page 261
      Protein/calorie contents of cereals; essential/total (E/T) ratios and chemical score; effect of processing on chemical score.
    4. Page 265
      Anti-nutritional factors in wheat products: haemagglutinins, protease and amylase inhibitors; wheat proteins as allergens.
    5. Page 268
      Genetic improvement of nutritional quality.
    6. Page 270
      Minor nutrients: minerals and vitamins.
    7. Page 274
      Conclusion: the role of wheat and flour in a balanced diet.
    8. Page 274
      References and further reading.
  13. Page 290
    Glossary of terms
  14. Page 289
    Index

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